Bomhard postulates that from Proto-Afroasiatic (henceforth PAA), Chadic was the first to break off. suff. Akpes The name Hamitic originates from Ham, one of the sons of Noah. As the Afroasiatic languages tend to be the tongues with the longest and oldest historical record, there are not many that can beat the Proto-Afroasiatic. [30] A common characteristic of AA languages is the existence of a special set of "independent" pronouns, which are distinct from subject pronouns. Retard. From the earliest times we have written records from Northern Africa. [40] Tom Gldemann, however, argues that less time may have been required than is commonly assumed, as it is possible for a language to rapidly restructure due to language contact, as happened in the Chadic branch and probably also in Omotic. [196] Additionally, because Egyptian is written without vowels before the Coptic period, its use for comparative purposes often relies on vocalic reconstructions that themselves depend on comparisons with other Afroasiatic languages. Its words and roots are not directly attested in any written works, but have been reconstructed through the comparative method, which finds regular similarities between languages that cannot be explained by coincidence or word-borrowing, and extrapolates ancient forms from these similarities. Egyptian is classified as a distinct language and the other sub-groups are: Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, Omotic, and Semitic (Voegelin, p.12). Like in the English example, feet foot, vowels make the difference between separate words. *-kep-to cease, no longer function: 327. [32] It may have as many as 80 to 100 million first and second language speakers. Theodor Benfy found that Egyptian and Semitic languages were similar in 1844, and he classified them under the Semito-Hamitic language family. Ongota Report Save. p-Nilotic (p-E. Niloticp-S. Nilotic) The Proto-Afroasiatic Vowel System" In The Nostratic Macrofamily: A Study in Distant Linguistic Relationship, 105-108. ; Sem., Eg. p-Lakka The Egyptian prefix has a middle voice/intransitive/or passive meaning. You guys might disagree with the results form the Shum Laka paper but don't distort their own interpretations of their findings. Mimi-N [190] Some South Cushitic numerals are borrowed from Nilotic languages, other Cushitic numerals have been borrowed from Ethiopian Semitic languages. [29], There are about 30,[34] 50,[35] or 70[36] Cushitic languages, spoken around the Horn of Africa and in Sudan and Tanzania. innovation: *-VC- v. stems > *-CV-), (Eg., Sem. . [140] A common pattern in AA languages with case is for the nominative to marked by -u or -i, and the accusative to be marked by -a. [69] This theory connected the "Hamites", the originators of Hamitic languages, with (supposedly cultural superior) "Caucasians", who were assumed to have migrated into Africa and intermixed with indigenous "Negroid" Africans in ancient times. p-Maji [85][86] Scholar Jared Diamond and archaeologist Peter Bellwood have taken up Militarev's arguments as part of their general argument that the spread of linguistic macrofamilies (such as Indo-European, Bantu, and Austro-Asiatic) can be associated with the development of agriculture; they argue that there is clear archaeological support for farming spreading from the Levant into Africa via the Nile valley. [156] It is unclear whether this system is a common AA trait;[157] the Chadic examples, for instance, show signs of originally deriving from affixes, which could explain the origins of the alterations in other languages as well. 2.10. innovation: addition of *t n. *y: attributive noun and attributive deverbative suffix: 2a. p-Oti-Volta (p-E. Oti-Voltap-C. Oti-Volta) p-Ukaan Classification and Index of the Worlds Languages. [78] An additional complicating factor is the lack of agreement on the subgroupings of Afroasiatic (see Subgrouping) - this makes associating archaeological evidence with the spread of Afroasiatic particularly difficult. p-Yoruboid Afro-Asiatic has been hypothesized to be related to many other language families. Omotic is the most controversial member of Afro-Asiatic. Newman suggested a relationship between Semitic and the Hausa language, an idea that was taken up by early scholars of Afroasiatic. alternative feminine endings *-ay/*-y; corresponding vowel templates for verbal conjugations) which can be reconstructed for a higher-order proto-language (provisionally called "Proto-Berbero-Semitic" by Kossmann & Suchard (2018) and Van Putten (2018)). p-Potou-Akanic innovation: addition of *t n. [101][a] The emphatic consonants are typically formed deeper in the throat than the others;[99] they can be realized variously as glottalized, pharyngealized, uvularized, ejective, and/or implosive consonants in the different branches. infix [also tonal shift as found in Chadic cases]), (this root is included because #871 following derives from it), (sing. Nilo-Saharan Great variety is incorporated in one family and this makes Afro-Asiatic an interesting topic of study. p-Kongo [29] Eight other Chadic languages have around 100,000 speakers; other Chadic languages often have few speakers and may be endangered of going extinct. FOR SALE! innovation: added meaning 'firm,' hence, figuratively, 'firmly established, strong'), to intertwine, to bind by twining together, to be above, be at the top, form the tip or peak, (Sem., Ch. innovation: to spoil > to sour), (Sem., Eg. p-Jen Three dialects emerged (Omotic, Cushitic, and Chadic) from the main one and this left 'Boreafrasian,' the source of Berber, Egyptian and Semitic (Dalby ,p. 6). Proto-Chadic reconstruction is in its infancy, Proto-Cushitic is even less developed, and according to Glottolog it's not demonstrable that Omotic languages are even related to each other, let alone as part of Afro-Asiatic. except for Semitic, which is also spoken in the Middle-East and Malta, all branches of the Kujarge Proposed specific locations include the Horn of Africa, Egypt, the eastern Sahara, and the Levant. in Semitic, Berber, and in Cushitic,[130][166] where it is only found on a small set of frequent verbs. innovation: narrowing of meaning to loud kinds of response), (2nd shape: stem + *r n. innovation: addition of * concisive to denote short, concentrated outflow, hence vomiting), (Sem., Eg. However, since the 1970s and '80s, comparisons of other Chadic subject pronouns with the Hausa ones have convinced most scholars that the similarity to the prefix conjugation is incidental. innovation: 'send' > 'direct,' hence 'command, rule'), (Agaw *a allows PAA vowel reconstructions *a, *aa, *o, or *e), (Sem., Eg. ; PS, Eg., Ch. Proto-Cushitic Roots (Additional to those presented in Ehret 1987) Appendix 3. Fig. suff. [124] Other scholars argue that Proto-AA had a pitch accent and some branches subsequently developed tone. Also, how do roots work? p-Ring In current scholarship, the most common names used for the family are Afroasiatic (or Afro-Asiatic), Hamito-Semitic, and Semito-Hamitic. [147][148] Berber instead contrasts between the "free state" and the "annexed state," the latter of which is used for a variety of purposes, including for subjects placed after a verb and after certain prepositions. [121] For Egyptian, evidence for the root-and-template structure exists from Coptic. Our assessments, publications and research spread knowledge, spark enquiry and aid understanding around the world. [54] Greenberg rejected the Afroasiatic classification of languages that Meinhof had classified as "Hamitic" based on racial and anthropological data. [25][26], There are two extinct languages potentially related to modern Berber. innovation: 'increase' > 'grow in size'), (root #838 + * part. S. SC Sem. Summary of Numbered Sound Shift Rules; Index 1. There is also some evidence from. p-Benue-Congo [26] The second is the Guanche language, which was formerly spoken on the Canary Islands and went extinct in the 17th century CE. 'be, exist'), (root seen also in #983 + probably *s caus. Looking at present languages and going backward helps us know what languages were like anciently (Atlas, p.75). [19] Additionally, a majority of specialists consider the Omotic languages to constitute a sixth branch. [151] Such an etymology is rejected by A. Zaborski and Gbor Takcs, the latter of whom argues for a PAA *ma- that unites all or some of the meanings in the modern languages. Dogon ; SC semantics: early beads were made of shell), (root of #48 + *c extend. To the south lay the other language families of Africa: Niger-Kordofanian, Nilo-Saharan, and Khoisan (Atlas,p74). innovation: move > move toward), (probably demon., root #767+ *l n./adj. With the exception of its Semitic branch, all branches of the Afroasiatic family are . p-Mumuye Some languages have an additional feminine plural form in -t that is not listed here. Author: Martin Bernal Language: EnglishEdition: 1stBinding: HardcoverPages: 575Publisher: Rutgers Univ PressPublication Date: 304805601149 all catalog, articles, website, & more in one search catalog books, media & more in the Stanford Libraries' collections articles+ journal articles & other e-resources El proto-afroasitico , a veces denominado proto-afrasiano , es el proto-lenguaje reconstruido del que descienden todas las lenguas afroasiticas modernas . V. V. ven. [187] Modern Chadic numeral systems are sometimes decimal, having separate names for the numbers 1-10, and sometimes base-5, deriving the numbers 6-9 from the numbers 1-5 in some way. PROTO-AFROASIATIC PHONOLOGICAL SYSTEM One of the most significant characteristics of Afroasiatic consonantism is the system of triads found in the stops and affri- cates -- each series (except the lateralized affricates) contains three members: a voiceless (aspirated) member, a voiced member, and a glottalized (that is, ejective) member. Allan Bomhard's own reconstructions of Proto-Afroasiatic roots (and phonology) seem to be biased toward Proto-Indo-European and Nostratic roots . Nara *t: . BLACK ATHENA: THE Afroasiatic Roots of Classical Civilization (The Fabrication, - $16.27. The speakers of Boreafrasian migrated north to an arid Sahara climate, then eventually pushed on west and east. [74], There is no consensus on when Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken. tr. These records make it possible to classify and reconstruct many languages. Gumuz *kanf-/*kinf-wing: 325. [4] The most widely spoken modern Afroasiatic language or dialect continuum by far is Arabic, a de facto group of distinct language varieties within the Semitic branch. This family was formally described and named "Semitic" by August Ludwig von Schlzer in 1781. Proto-Afro-Asiatic is proposed to have been spoken 18,000 years ago near the Horn of Africa (eastern Africa). innovation: as synonym for #505), (vowel reconstruction uncertain: PAA *u, *ee, or *oo are also possible here; contrary to earlier views, this is surely a distinct root from #503), (Eg., Sem. ), to extend, stretch out (intr. It rigorously applies, throughout, the established canon and techniques of the historical-comparative method. as EL). Some features observed in most or all Afroasiatic languages include: It remains unclear what word order Proto-Afroasiatic had. innovation: addition of *b extend., imputing meaning 'to count'), to show, bring to (ones) notice or attention, (Ch., Berber, and Eg. [31], A majority of specialists consider Omotic to constitute a sixth branch of Afroasiatic. [45] Omotic is typically split into North Omotic (or Aroid) and South Omotic, with the latter more influenced by the Nilotic languages; it is unclear whether the Dizoid group of Omotic languages belongs to the Northern or Southern group. Jalaa Abstract The paper is a new contribution to revealing the Afro-Asiatic heritage in the lexicon of the Angas-Sura group of Chadic languages by means of interbranch comparison using a.o. It also fully incorporates the most up-to-date evidence from the distinctive African branches of the family, Cushitic, Chadic, and Omotic. ; *u < *i /#-p_C-#? These three groups are classified as being in Africa while Afro-Asiatic is listed under the term Eurasia (Atlas, p.74). p-Cushitic [20], The Berber (or Libyco-Berber) languages are spoken today by perhaps 16 million people. Published 1995 Linguistics This work provides the first truly comprehensive and systematic reconstruction of proto-Afroasiatic (proto-Afrasian). p-Bantu (Swadesh list) [128] Proto-Chadic is reconstructed as having verb-initial word order,[80] but most Chadic languages have subject-verb-object word order. The reconstructed consonants for Proto-Afro-Asiatic are p and b, t and d, and k and g. The Egyptian bw meaning place and the Semitic bi meaning in or from are believed to be from the reconstructed root *b- meaning foot or place (ELL, p.51). [15] The association between Africans and the Biblical Ham dates back to at least Isidore of Seville (6th century CE), and earlier 19th-century scholars had vaguely spoken of "Hamian" or "Hamitish" languages. Berkeley: University of California Press. the ancient Egypto-Semitic evidence. [11] In 1855, Ernst Renan named these languages, related to Semitic but not Semitic, "Hamitic," in 1860 Carl Lottner proposed that they belonged to a single language family, and in 1876 Friedrich Mller first described them as a "Hamito-Semitic" language family. [118], Attempts to reconstruct the vocalic system of Proto-Afroasiatic vary considerably. [165] This theory has been criticized by some, such as Andrzej Zaborski and Alan Kaye, as being too many extensions to be realistic, though Zygmont Frajzyngier and Erin Shay note that some Chadic languages have as many as twelve extensions. Afroasiatic languages have over 500 million native speakers, which is the fourth-largest number of native speakers of any language family (after Indo-European, Sino-Tibetan, and NigerCongo). Each aspect of these reconstructions is substantiated in detail in an extensive etymological vocabulary of more than 1000 roots. [27] The first is the Numidian language, represented by over a thousand short inscriptions in the Libyco-Berber alphabet, found throughout North Africa and dating from the 2nd century BCE onward. [173] While some scholars posit an AA origin for this form, it is possible that the Berber and Cushitic forms are independent developments,[130] as they show significant differences from the Egyptian and Semitic forms. Roots Beginning with P and B - Oleg Linkohr 2020-03-15 . Sandawe [120] Ronny Meyer and H. Ekkehard Wolff instead propose that Proto-Afroasiatic may have had no vowels as such, instead employing various syllabic consonants (*l, *m, *n, *r) and semivowels or semivowel-like consonants (*w, *y, *, *, *, *h, *, *, *, *h) to form syllables. Whether this proto-language is ancestral to Berber and Semitic only, or also to other branches of Afroasiatic, still remains to be established. [10][11], Friedrich Mller introduced the name "Hamito-Semitic" to describe the family in his Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft, published in 1876. show more [146] Coptic and Egyptian grammar also refers to nouns having a "free" (absolute) state, a "construct state," and a "pronominal state." [8][9] Other proposed names which have not found widespread acceptance among the linguistic community include Erythraic, Lisramic, Noahitic, and Lamekhite. For other uses, see, Distribution of the Afro-Asiatic languages, Similarities in grammar, syntax, and morphology, Common derivational and morphological processes, Consonantal root structures and verbal forms, Some scholars argue that on the basis of Coptic that Egyptian had neither "emphatic consonants" nor a phonemic distinction between voiced and voiceless consonants. See . The Proto-Afroasiatic Vowel System. All branches of Afroasiatic have a limited number of underlying vowels (between two and seven), but the number of phonetic vowels can be much larger. (abbrev. Three dialects emerged (Omotic, Cushitic, and Chadic) from the main one and this left Boreafrasian, the source of Berber, Egyptian and Semitic (Dalby ,p. 6). Laal p-Katloid Proto-Chadic and Proto-Cushitic are likely even older. Tiefo p-Atlantic-Congo He showed that, generally, any consonant from one of these groups could combine with consonants from any other group, but could not be used together with consonants from the same group. [119] Vladimir Orel and Olga Stolbova instead proposed a six vowel system with a, e, o, i, ([y]), and u. innovation: addition of *w inchoative to stem), (root #866 with *-u- tr. [141] However, the number and types of cases varies across AA and also within the individual branches. [149], A prefix in m- is the most widely attested affix in AA that is used to derive nouns. sing. to domestic animals in general, then narrowing in PS and Eg. However, not one of Militarev's proposed 32 agricultural roots can be considered diagnostic of cultivation. [164] Identifying cognates is difficult because the languages in question are often separated by thousands of years of development and many languages within the family have long been in contact with each other, raising the possibility of loanwords. [196][164] Such cognates tend to rely on relatively simple sound correspondences. Omotic, Cushitic, and Chadic are also spoken north of the Sahara so it must be assumed that the speakers of these "dialects" migrated north likewise, though perhaps separately from the Boreafrasian speakers (Dalby, p.6). [154] In Semitic, Egyptian, Berber, and some Chadic languages, verbs have no inherent vowels at all; the vowels found in a given verb are dependent on the vocalic template. FOR SALE! The Cushitic forms in particular may be derived from morphology found in subordinate clauses. [105], Restrictions against the co-occurrence of certain, usually similar, consonants in verbal roots can be found in all Afroasiatic branches, though they are only weakly attested in Chadic and Omotic. derivation by addition of *-u- tr. [164] Christopher Ehret has proposed that Proto-Afroasiatic originally had as many as thirty-seven separate verbal extensions, many of which then became fossilized as third consonants. Afroasiatic is generally considered to be comprised of the language families Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, Egyptian, Omotic, and Semitic. p-Ogoni p-Central Togo [150] Christopher Ehret has argued that this prefix is a later development that was not present in Proto-Afro-Asiatic, but rather derived from a PAA indefinite pronoun *m-. WCh WOT p-Nupoid [169] As there is no evidence for the "prefix conjugation" in Omotic, Chadic, or Egyptian, it is unclear whether this was a Proto-Afroasiatic feature that has been lost in those branches or is a shared innovation among Semitic, Berber, and Cushitic. The quality of the underlying vowels varies considerably by language; the most common vowel throughout AA is schwa. [54] However, Christopher Ehret (1979), Harold Fleming (1981), and Joseph Greenberg (1981) all agree that the Omotic branch split from the rest first. 1 Afro-Asiatic Language Family. Traditionally, the Hausa subject pronouns have been compared to the prefix conjugation. Archaeologists and anthropologists have long viewed the Bible as mankind's best guide to prehistoric religion, however, archaeologist Klaus Schmidt had no reason to . ), (root seen also in #984 + *n non-fin. While there is no consensus among historical linguists concerning the original homeland of the Afroasiatic family or the period when the parent language (i.e. Proto-Afro-Asiatic is generally considered the oldest accepted one, though it's not known exactly how long ago it was spoken. London, Bloomsbury, 1998. The languages of what is now Afro-Asiatic occupy a "vast area that stretches from Morocco to Arabia" (Dalby, p.6). innovation: derivation of n. for 'hand'), (Eg., Sem. p-Omotic [49][48] Arabic, spoken in both Asia and Africa, has around 300 million native speakers, while the Ethiopian Amharic has around 25 million. Therefore the root is considered ktb. When looking for roots it is important to remember that early Semitic only had consonants and vowels had to be inferred from the context (Atlas, p.78-79). [40] Coptic is the only stage written alphabetically to show vowels, whereas Egyptian was previously written in Egyptian hieroglyphs, which only represent consonants. ), to become thoroughly wet, pour heavily (intr. Proto-Afroasiatic English gloss Notes 1. Each aspect of these reconstructions is substantiated in detail in an extensive etymological vocabulary of more than 1000 roots. 'to come so close as to brush against'), (Eg., Sem. Omotic and Cushitic followed the example and split together, as did Egyptian, Berber, and Semitic in another group. innovation: narrowing of meaning to particular kind of joining, by sewing), to split in two, split one from the other, (proposed source: #502, with regular PAA * > PBA *n; Eg., Berber, Sem. shared innovation: *als-/*ils- 'tongue': *a-/*i-attrib. [99] In all AA languages, consonants can be bilabial, alveolar, velar, and glottal, with additional places of articulation found in some branches or languages. p-Talodi to different specific animals), (possible vowel reconstructions: *a, *aa, *e, or *o), (Sem., Ch. [188] Andrzej Zaborski further notes that the numbers "one," "two," and "five" are particularly susceptible to replacement by new words, with "five" often based on a word meaning "hand". . [40] Egyptian is first attested in writing around 3000 BCE and finally went extinct around 1300 CE, making it the language with the longest written history in the world. [94], Several Afroasiatic languages have large numbers of consonants, and it is likely that Proto-Afroasiatic did as well:[95] Vladimir Orel and Olga Stolbova reconstruct 32 consonant phonemes,[96] while Christopher Ehret reconstructs 42. [80] Most scholars place the homeland of Afroasiatic near the center of its current distribution,[8] "in the southeastern Sahara or adjacent Horn of Africa. ); to reach out, (only C. reflexes imply 2nd form with reconstructed *a), to remove (from surface), pull, tear, or scrape off, to grumble, sigh, make sounds of complaint, (Eg., Sem. I.2.1. Proto-Nostratic would have been spoken between 15,000 and 12,000 BCE, in the Epipaleolithic period, close to the end of the last glacial period. [6], Scholars generally consider Afroasiatic to have at least five and as many as eight separate branches, with the five universally agreed upon branches consisting of the Berber (also called "Libyco-Berber"), Chadic, Cushitic, Egyptian, and Semitic. Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary. Semitic speakers moved into the Fertile Crescent and "emerg[ed] into history" by bringing Akkadian (a Semitic language) into what is now Iraq, a previously Sumerian-speaking area (Dalby ,p6). p-Bua !Kung, Bangime [183], Another factor making comparisons of AA numeral systems difficult is the possibility of borrowing. The modern word "Hebrew" is derived from the word "Ivri" (plural "Ivrim"; English: Hebrews), one of several names for the Israelite (Jewish and Samaritan) people. [193][194], Afroasiatic languages share a vocabulary of Proto-Afroasiatic origin to varying extents. [180] Also common are dependent/affix pronouns (used for direct objects and to mark possession). shared innovation: 'raise' > 'lift, pick up'; probable further Ch., Eg., Sem. Answer: Semitic languages are a branch of the Afroasiatic language family, which includes over 400 languages spoken across much of Africa and the Middle East. [131], Afroasiatic languages have a variety of ways of marking plurals; in some branches, nouns change gender from singular to plural (gender polarity),[133] while in others, plural forms are ungendered. Originally Posted by gihanga.rwanda. Kanuri [20] Omotic was formerly considered part of the Cushitic branch;[46] some scholars continue to consider it part of Cushitic. Of all of the languages in the Afro-Asiatic line, Arabic is the most widely spoken language, stretching from Western Africa to the Middle East (ELL, p.51). ; PC variant *damn-), (Ch., Eg., Sem. [67][68], An important development in the history of Afroasiatic scholarship - and the history of African linguistics - was the creation of the "Hamitic theory" or "Hamitic hypothesis" by Lepsius, fellow Egyptologist Christian Bunsen, and linguist Christian Bleek. [17][18] Victor Porkhomovsky suggests that the label "Hamito-Semitic" is at this point simply convention and no more implies an opposition between Semitic and "Hamitic" languages than "Indo-European" implies a "European" and an Indic branch. *w: deverbative complement and result suffix: 2. [66] Some scholars would continue to regard Hausa as related to the other Afroasiatic languages, but the idea was controversial: many scholars refused to admit that the largely unwritten, "Negroid" Chadic languages were in the same family as the "Caucasian" ancient civilizations of the Egyptians and Semites. [97] All Afroasiatic languages contain stops and fricatives; some branches have additional types of consonants such as affricates and lateral consonants. p-Guang [133], A widespread pattern of gender and number marking in Afroasiatic is a consonant N for masculine, T for feminine, and N for plural. i, u) and a low vowel (a) in verbal forms is usually described as one of the main characteristics of AA languages: this change codes a variety of different functions. [189] In some Berber languages, the roots for one and two are also borrowed from Arabic.